Philosophical Concepts

Effective Altruism

Movement applying reason and evidence to maximize positive impact of altruism. Effective altruists ask not just should I help, but how can I help most effectively? Methods include cause prioritization …

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Philosophical Concepts

Transhumanism

Intellectual movement advocating use of technology to enhance human capabilities beyond current limitations. Transhumanists support genetic engineering, cybernetics, life extension, and cognitive enhancement. Goals include overcoming aging, disease, cognitive limits, …

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Philosophical Concepts

Simulation Hypothesis

Modern philosophical hypothesis that reality might be a computer simulation. Nick Bostrom's argument: if civilizations can create realistic simulations and choose to do so, simulated beings vastly outnumber real ones, …

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Philosophical Concepts

Pragmatism

American philosophical tradition holding that truth is what works in practice. Pragmatists like Peirce, James, and Dewey reject abstract metaphysics for practical consequences. A belief is true if it proves …

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Philosophical Concepts

Rationalism

Epistemological view that reason is primary source of knowledge, independent of experience. Rationalists like Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz argue certain truths are knowable a priori through pure reason. Mathematical and …

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Philosophical Concepts

Empiricism

Epistemological view that knowledge comes from sensory experience. Empiricists like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume reject innate ideas, claiming the mind begins as blank slate (tabula rasa). All concepts derive from …

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Philosophical Concepts

Solipsism

Epistemological position that only one's own mind is certain to exist. Solipsism extends Cartesian doubt: I know I exist (cogito), but how can I prove anything else does? External world …

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Philosophical Concepts

The Golden Rule

Ethical principle appearing across cultures: treat others as you wish to be treated. Found in Christianity ("Do unto others"), Confucianism ("What you do not wish for yourself, do not impose …

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Philosophical Concepts

Virtue Ethics

Ethical approach focusing on character and virtues rather than rules or consequences. Rooted in Aristotle, virtue ethics asks "What kind of person should I be?" rather than "What should I …

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Philosophical Concepts

Utilitarianism

Ethical theory that right actions maximize overall happiness or well-being. Founded by Bentham and Mill, utilitarianism is consequentialist—judging actions by outcomes. Bentham's hedonistic version focuses on pleasure and pain. Mill …

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Philosophical Concepts

Categorical Imperative

Kant's central ethical principle: act only according to maxims you could will as universal law. The categorical imperative is unconditional—it applies regardless of desires or outcomes. First formulation: universalizability test …

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Philosophical Concepts

Yin and Yang

Chinese philosophical concept of complementary opposites in constant dynamic balance. Yin represents feminine, dark, passive, receptive, earth, moon qualities. Yang represents masculine, light, active, creative, heaven, sun qualities. Neither is …

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Philosophical Concepts

The Tao

Central concept in Taoism representing the fundamental nature of the universe. The Tao is ineffable—it cannot be fully described or named. "The Tao that can be told is not the …

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Philosophical Concepts

Wu Wei

Taoist concept of effortless action aligned with the natural flow (Tao). Wu wei literally means "non-doing" but implies acting without force, strain, or ego. It's spontaneous action that doesn't interfere …

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Philosophical Concepts

Dependent Origination

Buddhist teaching that all phenomena arise in dependence on conditions. Nothing exists independently; everything is interconnected in causal networks. The twelve links of dependent origination explain how ignorance leads to …

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Philosophical Concepts

Emptiness

Buddhist concept that all phenomena lack inherent existence or fixed essence. Emptiness (Sanskrit: śūnyatā) doesn't mean nothingness but interdependence—things exist only in relation. Nothing has independent, permanent self-nature. Understanding emptiness …

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Philosophical Concepts

Non-Duality

Eastern philosophical concept that reality is fundamentally one, without subject-object division. Non-duality (Sanskrit: Advaita) teaches that the perceiver and perceived are not separate. The sense of individual self (ego) is …

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Philosophical Concepts

Synchronicity

Jungian concept of meaningful coincidences that cannot be explained by causality. Synchronicity occurs when inner psychological state corresponds to outer events without causal connection. Jung developed this concept with physicist …

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Philosophical Concepts

Enantiodromia

Jungian principle that everything eventually turns into its opposite. Borrowed from Heraclitus, enantiodromia describes how one-sided development leads to reversal. Extreme rationality may flip to irrationality; excessive control to chaos. …

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Philosophical Concepts

Anima and Animus

Jungian concepts of the feminine in men (anima) and masculine in women (animus). The anima represents a man's unconscious feminine qualities—emotion, intuition, receptivity. The animus represents a woman's unconscious masculine …

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Philosophical Concepts

Individuation

Jungian process of becoming one's true self through integrating conscious and unconscious aspects. Individuation involves confronting and integrating the shadow, anima/animus, and other archetypes. The goal is not perfection but …

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Philosophical Concepts

Collective Unconscious

Jungian concept of the deepest layer of unconscious shared by all humans. The collective unconscious contains archetypes—universal patterns and images inherited from ancestral experience. Unlike the personal unconscious (individual repressed …

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Philosophical Concepts

Shadow

Jungian concept of the unconscious aspects of personality that the ego rejects. The shadow contains repressed desires, instincts, and qualities deemed unacceptable. Jung emphasized that the shadow is not purely …

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Philosophical Concepts

Phenomenology

Philosophical method studying consciousness and experience as they appear to us. Founded by Husserl, phenomenology seeks to describe phenomena without metaphysical assumptions. Husserl's epoché (bracketing) suspends judgment about objective reality …

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