Philosophical Concepts

100 philosophical concepts
Philosophical Concepts

Confucianism

Chinese ethical and philosophical system based on teachings of Confucius. Emphasizes filial piety, social hierarchy, ritual propriety (li), and benevolence (ren). Education and self-cultivation develop moral character. Five relationships structure …

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Philosophical Concepts

Taoism

Chinese philosophical and religious tradition based on Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi. Emphasizes harmony with Tao (the Way), wu wei (non-action), and spontaneous naturalness. Rejects Confucian social artifice for simplicity …

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Philosophical Concepts

Zen

School of Mahayana Buddhism emphasizing direct insight over scripture. Zen arose in China (Chan) and developed distinctively in Japan. Practices include zazen (sitting meditation), koans (paradoxical questions), and sudden enlightenment. …

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Philosophical Concepts

Nirvana

Buddhist concept of the cessation of suffering and liberation from samsara. Nirvana literally means blowing out or extinction—of craving, aversion, and delusion. Not annihilation but transcendence of limited selfhood. Nirvana …

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Philosophical Concepts

Samsara

Hindu and Buddhist concept of the cycle of death and rebirth. Beings are reborn according to karma in various realms of existence. Samsara is characterized by suffering (dukkha) and impermanence. …

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Philosophical Concepts

Moksha

Hindu concept of liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara). Moksha is the ultimate goal of human life—freedom from suffering and limitation. Achieved through knowledge (jnana), devotion (bhakti), …

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Philosophical Concepts

Maya

Hindu and Buddhist concept of the illusory nature of phenomenal reality. Maya literally means magic or illusion. The material world is not unreal but deceptive—we mistake appearances for ultimate reality. …

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Philosophical Concepts

Atman and Brahman

Hindu concepts of individual self (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman). Atman is the true self beyond ego and personality—unchanging consciousness. Brahman is the ultimate, formless reality underlying all existence. Advaita …

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Philosophical Concepts

Dharma

Hindu and Buddhist concept of cosmic order and individual duty. In Hinduism, dharma includes cosmic law, social duty, and personal ethics. Each person has unique dharma based on role and …

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Philosophical Concepts

Karma

Hindu and Buddhist concept of moral cause and effect. Actions create consequences extending beyond current life. Good karma results from ethical actions; bad karma from unethical ones. Karma is not …

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Philosophical Concepts

Archetypes

Jungian concept of innate universal patterns in the collective unconscious. Archetypes are not specific images but predispositions to form images and behaviors. Examples include Mother, Father, Hero, Trickster, Wise Old …

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Philosophical Concepts

Persona

Jungian concept of the social face we present to the world. The persona is necessary for functioning in society but becomes problematic when identified with the true self. Overdevelopment of …

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Philosophical Concepts

Consciousness

The subjective quality of experience—what it's like to be something. Phenomenal consciousness is qualitative experience (qualia); access consciousness is information availability for reasoning. The hard problem (Chalmers): why does physical …

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Philosophical Concepts

Holism

View that systems should be understood as wholes, not merely as sum of parts. The whole has properties absent in isolated components. Holism opposes reductionism, emphasizing context, relationships, and emergent …

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Philosophical Concepts

Reductionism

View that complex phenomena can be explained by reducing to simpler components. Methodological reductionism: study parts to understand wholes. Ontological reductionism: higher-level entities are nothing but lower-level constituents. Theory reduction: …

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Philosophical Concepts

Emergence

Phenomenon where complex systems exhibit properties not present in components. Strong emergence: higher-level properties are irreducible and have causal power. Weak emergence: higher-level properties are explainable by lower-level dynamics but …

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Philosophical Concepts

Panpsychism

View that consciousness or mind-like qualities are fundamental and ubiquitous in nature. All matter has some degree of consciousness or proto-consciousness. Panpsychism addresses the hard problem by making consciousness a …

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Philosophical Concepts

Dualism

Metaphysical view that mind and body are distinct substances. Cartesian substance dualism: mind (res cogitans) and matter (res extensa) are fundamentally different. Property dualism: one substance with mental and physical …

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Philosophical Concepts

Idealism

Metaphysical view that reality is fundamentally mental or experiential. Berkeley's subjective idealism: to be is to be perceived (esse est percipi). Kant's transcendental idealism: we know phenomena (appearances) not noumena …

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Philosophical Concepts

Materialism

Metaphysical view that only physical matter exists; mental states reduce to brain states. Eliminative materialism denies mental states exist as commonly understood. Reductive materialism explains mind through neuroscience. Materialism contrasts …

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Philosophical Concepts

Free Will

Capacity to make choices unconstrained by external factors or prior causes. Libertarian free will asserts genuine alternatives and agent causation. Existentialists emphasize radical freedom and responsibility. Compatibilists argue free will …

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Philosophical Concepts

Determinism

Philosophical view that all events are determined by prior causes. Hard determinism denies free will—every action results from preceding conditions. Soft determinism (compatibilism) argues free will and determinism can coexist. …

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Philosophical Concepts

Open Source Ethics

Ethical framework emphasizing software freedom and collaborative development. Richard Stallman's four freedoms: run, study, redistribute, and improve software. Open source (OSI definition) emphasizes practical benefits; free software (FSF) emphasizes ethical …

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Philosophical Concepts

Unix Philosophy

Design philosophy for software emphasizing simplicity, modularity, and composability. Core principles: make each program do one thing well; expect program output to become another's input; design for modularity and textual …

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