Holism
View that systems should be understood as wholes, not merely as sum of parts. The whole has properties absent in isolated components. Holism opposes reductionism, emphasizing context, relationships, and emergent properties. Examples include ecosystems, organisms, languages, and societies. Methodological holism studies systems-level properties. Semantic holism: meaning depends on entire language system. Holism influences systems theory, ecology, and alternative medicine. Critics note difficulty in studying irreducible wholes scientifically. The approach emphasizes interconnection and context.
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