Categorical Imperative
Kant's central ethical principle: act only according to maxims you could will as universal law. The categorical imperative is unconditional—it applies regardless of desires or outcomes. First formulation: universalizability test (what if everyone did this?). Second formulation: treat humanity as end, never merely as means. Third formulation: act as legislating member of kingdom of ends. The categorical imperative grounds morality in reason rather than consequences, emotion, or divine command. It emphasizes human dignity, autonomy, and consistency. Critics question whether it provides clear guidance in complex situations.
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