Baruch Spinoza
Dutch philosopher who identified God with Nature in radical monism. Spinoza's Ethics presents geometric proof system for metaphysics and ethics. Excommunicated from Jewish community for heresy. His determinism, rejection of free will, and pantheism influenced Enlightenment and German Idealism. Spinoza's conatus and intellectual love of God offer path to freedom through understanding.
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Baruch Spinoza
Dutch philosopher of Sephardic Jewish origin who developed a comprehensive metaphysical system. Spinoza's Ethics presented …
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Friedrich Nietzsche
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Ethics
Spinoza's geometrical proof of God-Nature identity, determinism, and freedom through understanding. Written in Euclidean format …
Gödel Escher Bach
Hofstadter's Pulitzer Prize-winning book explores consciousness, meaning, and self-reference through the work of logician Gödel, …
Rationalism
Epistemological view that reason is primary source of knowledge, independent of experience. Rationalists like Descartes, …
Critique of Pure Reason
Kant's foundational work establishes limits of human knowledge and synthetic a priori judgments. Through transcendental …
Existentialism
Philosophical movement emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and choice. Existentialism asserts that existence precedes essence—humans create …
Panpsychism
View that consciousness or mind-like qualities are fundamental and ubiquitous in nature. All matter has …
The Genealogy of Morals
Nietzsche's polemical work traces the origin of moral concepts like good and evil, guilt and …
Buddha
Prince who renounced wealth to seek enlightenment, founding Buddhism. Buddha's discovery of the Middle Way …